Tuesday 20 May 2014

Setting up consoles and LAN party's




We had an old Nintendo NES system and we set it up and played some games on it. Fist I had to plug in the power lead and plug it into a wall socket. After, I had to plug in the scart lead into the back of the system and then plugged in the RGB cables.  

This is me playing the system I set up, with Connor, the legend! (I'm on the left side with the long hair) 




I also had to set up and play a LAN party. First I had to open up a game of my choice and select the multiplayer menu and select LAN. Then I set how I wanted the LAN game to be, for example I selected team deathmatch and set the time limit to 10 mins. Below are some pictures of me playing on a LAN party. 





Game console timeline

Attention, due to the following task being a research task all of the information is not my own. The site the information is from will be hyper-linked bellow the information.

This time line is in date order, with the oldest first and the newest last.

Atari Lynx:

The Atari Lynx is a 16-bit handheld game console that was released by Atari Corporation in September 1989. The Lynx holds the distinction of being the world's first handheld electronic game with a colour LCD. The system is also notable for its forward-looking features, advanced graphics, and ambidextrous layout. As part of the fourth generation of gaming, the Lynx competed with Nintendo's Game Boy (released just a month earlier), the Sega Game Gear and NEC's TurboExpress, both released the following year. However, the Game Boy in particular, as well as the Sega Game Gear, outsold the Lynx. Atari failed to achieve the sale numbers required to attract quality third party developers and the Lynx was eventually abandoned.
Today, as with many older consoles, there is still a small group of devoted fans, creating and selling games for the system.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Lynx 

SegaGameGear:

The Sega Game Gear (ゲームギア Gēmu Gia) is an 8-bit handheld game console released by Sega on October 6, 1990 in Japan, 1991 in North America and Europe, and Australia in 1992. As part of the fourth generation of gaming, the Game Gear primarily competed with Nintendo's Game Boy, the Atari Lynx and NEC's TurboExpress. The handheld shares much of its hardware with the Sega Master System and is able to play its own titles as well as those of the Master System, the latter being made possible by the use of an adapter. Containing a full-colour backlit screen with a landscape format, Sega positioned the Game Gear as a technologically superior handheld to the Game Boy.
Though the Game Gear was rushed to market, its unique game library and price point gave it an edge over the Atari Lynx and TurboExpress. However, due to issues with its short battery life, lack of original titles, and weak support from Sega, the Game Gear was unable to beat the Game Boy, selling approximately 11 million units. The Game Gear was succeeded by the Sega Nomad in 1995, and was discontinued in 1997. A rerelease of the system was done by Majesco in 2000. Several Game Gear titles were released on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console service on the Nintendo eShop in 2012. Retrospective reception to the Game Gear is mixed with criticisms over its battery life, praises for its full-colour backlit screen, and uneven reception over the quality of its game library.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Gamegear

SegaSaturn:

The Sega Saturn (セガサターン Sega Satān) is a 32-bit fifth-generation video game console that was first released by Sega on November 22, 1994 in Japan, May 11, 1995 in North America and July 8, 1995 in Europe.
The Saturn sold 9.5 million units worldwide, and its installed base in Japan was over 6 million units though it was only 2 million in the United States. While it was popular in Japan, the Saturn failed to gain a similar market share in North America and Europe against its main competitors: Sony's PlayStation and later the Nintendo 64.
In 2009, video game website IGN chose the Saturn to be their 18th best video game console of all time, out of their list of 25.
In addition to playing games, all of the Saturn models could play CD-DA, CD+G, and CD+EG discs. A software disc was sold by Sega to allow the playing of PhotoCDs ('Photo CD Operating System'). An MPEG decoding hardware module was released by Sega, JVC and Hitachi, allowing VideoCD playback. JVC later released a VideoCD module that included the software for displaying PhotoCDs, eliminating the need for a software disc. However, these modules were released in Japan and Europe only due to the popularity of the Video CD Format. In order to use one on a North American Saturn, a region converter must be used.
There were some titles that could be played on both North American and Japanese consoles, with Street Fighter Alpha 2 being one of the titles that could be played on both regions systems without a converter. Scud: The Disposable Assassin, which was only released in the North America, was compatible with both European and Japanese Saturns, in addition to North American Saturns.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn

PlayStation 1-3:

The PlayStation (プレイステーション Pureisutēshon?), officially abbreviated as PS, at the time referred to as PSX (not to be confused with the PSX console) and also known as PS1 is a 32-bit video game console first released by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan on December 3, 1994, with Western releases in September 1995. The PlayStation was the first of the PlayStation series of consoles and handheld game devices. As part of the fifth-generation of gaming, it primarily competed with the Nintendo 64 and the Sega Saturn. In 2000, a re-designed, "slim" version was released, called the PSone, replacing the original grey console, and also being renamed to avoid confusion with its successor, the PlayStation 2.
The PlayStation was the first "computer entertainment platform" to ship 100 million units, which it had reached 9 years and 6 months after its initial launch. The last PSone units were sold on Christmas 2004 before it was finally discontinued, for a total of 102 million units shipped since its launch 10 years earlier. Games continued to sell until Sony ceased production of PlayStation games on March 23, 2006; over 11 years after it was released, and just over half a year before the release of the PlayStation 3.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playstation_1

PlayStation 2:

The PlayStation 2 (Japanese: プレイステーション2 Hepburn: Pureisutēshon Tsū, officially abbreviated as PS2) is a video game console that was manufactured by Sony Computer Entertainment. It was released on March 4, 2000, in Japan followed by North America and Europe later the same year. The sixth-generation console competed with the Sega Dreamcast, Microsoft Xbox, and Nintendo GameCube.
The PlayStation 2 went on to become the best-selling video game console of all time, selling over 150 million units. More than 3,800 game titles have been released for the PS2 since launch, and more than 1.5 billion copies have been sold. Sony later manufactured several smaller, lighter revisions of the console known as "slimline" models, and in 2006 introduced the successor, the PlayStation 3.
On January 4, 2013, Sony announced that the PlayStation 2 had been discontinued after 12 years of production – one of the longest runs of all time for a video game console. Despite the announcement, new games for the console continue to be produced including Final Fantasy XI: Seekers of Adoulin for Japan and FIFA 14 and Pro Evolution Soccer 2014 for Occident. Sony unveiled the PlayStation 4 console the following month on February 20, 2013.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playstation_2

PlayStation 3:

The PlayStation 3 (Japanese: プレイステーション3 Hepburn: Pureisutēshon Surī, officially abbreviated as PS3) is a home video game console produced by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to the PlayStation 2, as part of the PlayStation series. The PlayStation 3 competes with Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. It was first released on November 11, 2006, in Japan, with international markets following shortly thereafter.
The console was first officially announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2005. Originally set for a spring 2006 release date, it was delayed several times until finally hitting stores at the end of the year. It was the first console to use Blu-ray Disc as its primary storage medium. Major features of the console include its unified online gaming service, the PlayStation Network, and its connectivity with the PlayStation Portable and PlayStation Vita, In September 2009 the updated PlayStation 3 Slim, was released. This Slim is lighter and thinner than the original version, although it lacks PlayStation 2 backwards compatibility (removed on later original models), but notably featured a re-designed logo and marketing design. A further refined Super Slim design was released in late 2012. 75 million PlayStation 3's have been sold worldwide. Its successor, PlayStation 4, is set for a November 15, 2013 release.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PS3

Gameboy Colour:

The Game Boy Color (ゲームボーイカラー Gēmu Bōi Karā), sometimes referred as GBC, is a handheld game console developed by Nintendo and released on October 21, 1998 in Japan, November 18, 1998 in North America, November 23, 1998 in Europe and November 27, 1998 in Australia. It is the successor of the original Game Boy.
The Game Boy Colour, as suggested by the name, features a colour screen. It is slightly thicker and taller than the Game Boy Pocket, which is a redesigned Game Boy released in 1996. As with the original Game Boy, it has an 8-bit processor.
As part of the fifth generation of gaming (post-1997), the Game Boy Colour's primary competitors were the Neo Geo Pocket and the WonderSwan (Japan only), though the Game Boy Colour outsold these by a huge margin. The Game Boy and Game Boy Colour combined have sold 118.69 million units worldwide.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gameboy_Color

Dreamcast:

he Dreamcast (ドリームキャスト Dorīmukyasuto) is a video game console that was released by Sega in November 1998 in Japan and later in 1999 in other territories. It was the first entry in the sixth generation of video game consoles, preceding its rivals, the PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube. The Dreamcast was Sega's last home console to date.
Sega intended to launch the console as part of a comeback after its previous efforts with the Sega Saturn failed. With a strong marketing campaign and reformed studios to develop new creative content, the Dreamcast was initially well received with a very successful launch and strong sales. However when Sony announced the eagerly awaited PlayStation 2, sales of the Dreamcast plummeted and it lost its momentum. Sega later came to the realization that it did not have the resources to compete as it was in dire financial straits. The company discontinued the Dreamcast in North America early in March 2001, withdrawing from the console hardware business altogether and restructuring itself as a third-party developer. Support of the system continued in Europe and Oceania until the end of 2002, while in Japan, consoles were still sold until 2007 and new licensed games continued to be released. 10.6 million units were sold worldwide, as of 2002.
Despite its short lifespan, the Dreamcast was widely hailed as ahead of its time. It saw the release of many new game series which have been considered creative and innovative, such as Crazy Taxi, Jet Set Radio, and Shenmue, the most expensive game ever produced upon release. Ports of games from other platforms were also praised for the system and the console introduced many aesthetic and software design features to be later emulated. It was the first[citation needed] games console to render full frames (as opposed to interlaced only) in VGA mode at 640×480, and it continues to be held in high regard for pioneering online console gaming; it was the first console to include a built-in modem and Internet support for online play. The Dreamcast is still highly regarded and remembered, and its influence can be greatly seen in Microsoft's Xbox, as Sega worked with the company before the Xbox's release. As of 2013, the Dreamcast is still supported via small independent companies such as RedSpotGames and the GOAT Store. The Dreamcast was chosen as the best console ever by PC Magazine.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast

Gamecube:

The GameCube (ゲームキューブ Gēmukyūbu, officially called Nintendo GameCube, abbreviated NGC in Japan and GCN in North America) is a video game console released by Nintendo on September 14, 2001, in Japan and November 18, 2001, in North America. It was later released worldwide in 2002. The sixth-generation console was the successor to the Nintendo 64 and competed with the Sony's PlayStation 2, Microsoft's Xbox, and Sega's Dreamcast.
The GameCube was the first Nintendo console to use optical discs for its primary storage medium. The discs are similar to the miniDVD format, and as a result of their smaller size, the system was not designed to play standard DVDs or audio CDs. Nintendo also introduced a variety of connectivity options for the GameCube. It was the first Nintendo console to support online gaming, which relied on the use of an add-on broadband or modem adapter that was sold separately. Game support and availability of the adapter was, however, very limited. The GameCube also supported connectivity to the Game Boy Advance, allowing players to access exclusive in-game features using the handheld as a second screen and controller.
Reception of the GameCube was generally mixed. Some praised the extensive software library and high-quality games, while others criticized the console's exterior design and lack of features. The GameCube sold approximately 22 million units worldwide before being discontinued in 2007. Its successor, the Wii, was released in November 2006.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamecube 

XBOX/ XBOX 360:

The original Xbox was released on November 15, 2001 in North America, February 22, 2002 in Japan, and March 14, 2002 in Australia and Europe. It was Microsoft's first foray into the gaming console market. As part of the sixth-generation of gaming, the Xbox competed with Sony's PlayStation 2, Sega's Dreamcast (which stopped American sales before the Xbox went on sale), and Nintendo's GameCube. The Xbox was the first console offered by an American company after the Atari Jaguar stopped sales in 1996. The name Xbox was derived from a contraction of DirectX Box, a reference to Microsoft's graphics API, DirectX.
The integrated Xbox Live service launched in November 2002 allowed players to play games online with a broadband connection. It first competed with Dreamcast's online service but later primarily competed with PlayStation 2's online service. Although these two are free while Xbox Live required a subscription, as well as broadband-only connection which was not completely adopted yet, Xbox Live was a success due to better servers, features such as a buddy list, and milestone titles like Halo 2 released in November 2004, which is the best-selling Xbox video game and was by far the most popular online game for years.

XBOX 360:

The Xbox 360 was released as the successor of the original Xbox in November 2005, competing with Sony's PlayStation 3 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. As of June 30, 2013, 78.2 million Xbox 360 consoles have been sold worldwide. The Xbox 360 was officially unveiled on MTV on May 12, 2005, with detailed launch and game information divulged later that month at the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3). The console sold out completely upon release in all regions except in Japan.
The Xbox 360 introduced an expanded Xbox Live service (which now included a limited "Free" tier), the ability to stream multimedia content from PCs, while later updates added the ability to purchase and stream music, television programs, and films through the Xbox Music and Xbox Video services, along with access to third-party content services through third-party media streaming applications. Microsoft also released Kinect, a motion control system for the Xbox 360 which uses an advanced sensor system.
At their E3 presentation on June 14, 2010, Microsoft announced a redesigned Xbox 360 that would ship on the same day. The redesigned console is slimmer than the previous Xbox 360 model and features integrated 802.11 b/g/n Wi-Fi, TOSLINK S/PDIF optical audio output, five USB 2.0 ports (compared to the three from older versions) and special port designed for the Kinect peripheral. Older models of the Xbox 360 have since been discontinued.[15] The first new console to be released features a 250 GB hard drive, while a later less expensive SKU features 4 GB internal storage.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox#Xbox 

NGage:

The N-Gage is a mobile phone and handheld game system by Nokia, based on the Nokia Series 60 platform, released on 7 October 2003. The N-Gage QD replaced the original N-Gage in 2004.
N-Gage attempted to lure gamers away from the Game Boy Advance by including mobile phone functionality. This was unsuccessful, partly because the buttons, designed for a phone, were not well-suited for gaming and when used as a phone the original N-Gage was described as resembling a "taco".
In 2005, Nokia announced that it would move its N-Gage games capabilities onto a series of smartphones. These Symbian devices have been available since early 2007, and a pre-release version of the N-Gage application allowing users to purchase and download games was made available for download from the official N-Gage website on 4 February 2008. The full version of the N-Gage service was released to the public on 3 April 2008. On 30 October 2009, Nokia pronounced the end of the N-Gage service at the end of 2010. 

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGage

Nintendo DS:

The Nintendo DS (ニンテンドーDS Nintendō Dī Esu) is a dual-screen handheld game console developed and released by Nintendo. The device went on sale in North America on November 21, 2004. The DS, short for "dual screen", introduced distinctive new features to handheld gaming: an LCD screen working in tandem with a touchscreen, a built-in microphone, and support for wireless connectivity. Both screens are encompassed within a clamshell design similar to the Game Boy Advance SP. The Nintendo DS also features the ability for multiple DS consoles to directly interact with each other over Wi-Fi within a short range without the need to connect to an existing wireless network. Alternatively, they can interact online using the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service.
Prior to its release, the Nintendo DS was marketed as a "third pillar" in Nintendo's console line up, meant to complement the Game Boy Advance and GameCube. However, backward compatibility with Game Boy Advance titles and strong sales ultimately established the new handheld console as the successor to the Game Boy series. On March 2, 2006, Nintendo launched the Nintendo DS Lite, a slimmer and lighter redesign of the original Nintendo DS with brighter screens. On November 1, 2008, Nintendo released the Nintendo DSi, another redesign with several hardware improvements and new features. As of June 30, 2013, all Nintendo DS models combined have sold 153.93 million units, making it the best selling handheld game console to date, and the second best selling video game console of all time.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_ds


PlayStation Portable/ PlayStation Vita:

The PlayStation Portable (プレイステーション・ポータブル Pureisutēshon Pōtaburu), sometimes abbreviated as PSP (ピーエスピー Pī Esu Pī), is a handheld game console made by Sony. Development of the console was announced during E3 2003, and it was unveiled on May 11, 2004, at a Sony press conference before E3 2004. The system was released in Japan on December 12, 2004, in North America on March 24, 2005, and in the PAL region on September 1, 2005.
The PlayStation Portable is the only handheld video game console to use an optical disc format, Universal Media Disc (UMD), as its primary storage medium. Other distinguishing features of the console include its large viewing screen, robust multi-media capabilities, and connectivity with the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, other PSPs and the Internet.
After the release of a slimmer, lighter, remodelled version of the PlayStation Portable (the PSP-2000/"Slim & Lite") in early September 2007, sales quadrupled in the United Kingdom the following week and increased by nearly 200% in North America for the month of October. This model was later replaced by another remodelling, the PSP-3000, which included a new screen and an inbuilt microphone. Since then, a complete redesign called the PSP Go has been released, which was sold alongside the PSP-3000. In 2011 a budget model, the PSP-E1000, was released. The PSP line was succeeded by the PlayStation Vita, released in December 2011 in Japan, and in February 2012 in North America, Europe and Australia, respectively.

PlayStation Vita:

The PlayStation Vita (Japanese: プレイステーション・ヴィータ Hepburn: Pureisutēshon Vīta, officially abbreviated PS Vita) is a handheld game console manufactured and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to the PlayStation Portable as part of the PlayStation brand of gaming devices. It was released in Japan and parts of Asia on December 17, 2011, in Europe, North America, South America and Singapore on February 22, 2012, and in Australia on February 23, 2012. It primarily competes with the Nintendo 3DS, as part of the eighth generation of gaming.
The handheld includes two analog sticks, a 5-inch (130 mm) OLED multi-touch capacitive touchscreen, and supports Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and optional 3G. Internally, the Vita features a quad-core ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore processor and a quad-core SGX543MP graphics processing unit, as well as LiveArea software as its main user interface, which succeeds the XrossMediaBar.

A redesigned PS Vita was announced by Sony on September 9, 2013. The new PCH-2000 series system is 20% thinner, 15% lighter, has an additional hour of battery life, has moved from OLED to LCD, includes a micro USB Type B port, 1GB of internal storage memory, and will be available in Japan on October 10, 2013 in six colours. In addition, Sony is introducing a new 64 GB memory card, and the PlayStation Vita TV device which allows players to play PS Vita games on a television, available in Japan on 14 November 2013.


Nintendo Wii/ WiiU:

The Wii (ウィー Uī?, /ˈwiː/) is a home video game console released by Nintendo on November 19, 2006. As a seventh-generation console, the Wii competes with Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Sony's PlayStation 3. Nintendo states that its console targets a broader demographic than that of the two others. As of the first quarter of 2012, the Wii leads the generation over PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in worldwide sales; in December 2009, the console broke the sales record for a single month in the United States.
The Wii has many advanced features compared to previous Nintendo consoles. For example, the primary wireless controller (the Wii Remote) can be used as a handheld pointing device and detects movement in three dimensions. Another notable feature of the console is WiiConnect24, which enables it to receive messages and updates over the Internet while in standby mode. Furthermore, it is the first console to offer the Virtual Console service, with which select emulated games from past systems can be downloaded.
It succeeds the Nintendo GameCube, with early models being fully backward-compatible with all GameCube games and most accessories. Nintendo first spoke of the console at the 2004 E3 press conference and later unveiled it at the 2005 E3. Nintendo CEO Satoru Iwata revealed a prototype of the controller at the September 2005 Tokyo Game Show. At E3 2006, the console won the first of several awards. By December 8, 2006, it had completed its launch in the four key markets.
In late 2011 Nintendo released a reconfigured model, the "Wii Family Edition", which removed Nintendo GameCube compatibility; this model was not released in Japan. The Wii Mini, Nintendo's first major console redesign since the compact SNES, succeeded the standard Wii model on December 7, 2012 in Canada. The Wii Mini can only play Wii optical discs, as it omits GameCube and online game capabilities.
The Wii's successor, the Wii U, was released on November 18, 2012.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_wii 

WiiU:

The Wii U (ウィー ユー Wī Yū?, Pronounced /ˌwiː ˈjuː/) is a video game console from Nintendo and the successor to the Wii. The system was released on November 18, 2012, in North America; November 30, 2012, in the PAL regions; and on December 8, 2012, in Japan. It is the first entry in the eighth generation of video game home consoles, and will compete with Sony's PlayStation 4 and Microsoft's Xbox One.
The Wii U is the first Nintendo console to support high-definition graphics, capable of producing video output up to 1080p, and has 2 GB of RAM with half dedicated to the console's operating system. The console was released in two versions: a "Basic" white-colored version with 8 GB of internal Flash storage; and a "Deluxe"/"Premium" black-colored version with 32 GB of Flash storage. The Deluxe package additionally includes stands for the console and for the GamePad, a charging dock for the GamePad, and a pack-in game. An HDMI cable is included with both versions. The Wii U's primary controller is the Wii U GamePad, which features an embedded touchscreen. The touchscreen is used to supplement the main gameplay shown on the television or, with games supporting Off-TV Play, can allow the player to continue playing games by displaying the main gameplay even when the television is off. In addition to the Wii U GamePad, a more traditional controller, called the Wii U Pro Controller, may be used.
The system is backward compatible with Wii, and Wii U games may support compatibility with Wii peripherals, such as the Wii Remote and the Nunchuk. While it is not backward compatible with Nintendo GameCube discs or peripherals, Nintendo of America's director of entertainment and trend marketing indicated that select GameCube titles would become available for download, although Nintendo has since stated it has nothing to announce regarding this.

Information sourced from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiiU

Types of RAM

SRAM         
Static random-access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. The term static differentiates it from dynamic RAM (DRAM) which must be periodically refreshed. SRAM exhibits data remanence, but it is still volatile in the conventional sense that data is eventually lost when the memory is not powered.
DRAM
Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1. Since capacitors leak charge, the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to
and other static memory.
SRAM
The main memory (the "RAM") in personal computers is dynamic RAM (DRAM). It is the RAM in desktops, laptops and workstation computers as well as some of the RAM of video game consoles.
The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one transistor and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to four or six transistors in SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high densities. Unlike flash memory, DRAM is volatile memory (vs. non-volatile memory), since it loses its data quickly when power is removed. The transistors and capacitors used are extremely small; billions can fit on a single memory chip.
EDO DRAM
Short for Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory, a type of DRAM that is faster than conventional DRAM. Unlike conventional DRAM which can only access one block of data at a time, EDO RAM can start fetching the next block of memory at the same time that it sends the previous block to the CPU.
SDRAM
Synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM) is dynamic random access memory (DRAM) that is synchronized with the system bus. Classic DRAM has an asynchronous interface, which means that it responds as quickly as possible to changes in control inputs. SDRAM has a synchronous interface, meaning that it waits for a clock signal before responding to control inputs and is therefore synchronized with the computer's system bus. The clock is used to drive an internal finite state machine that pipelines incoming commands. The data storage area is divided into several banks, allowing the chip to work on several memory access commands at a time, interleaved among the separate banks. This allows higher data access rates than an asynchronous DRAM.
Pipelining means that the chip can accept a new command before it has finished processing the previous one. In a pipelined write, the write command can be immediately followed by another command, without waiting for the data to be written to the memory array. In a pipelined read, the requested data appears after a fixed number of clock cycles after the read command (latency), clock cycles during which additional commands can be sent. (This delay is called the latency and is an important performance parameter to consider when purchasing SDRAM for a computer.)
SDRAM is widely used in computers; from the original SDRAM, further generations of DDR (or DDR1) and then DDR2 and DDR3 have entered the mass market, with DDR4 currently being designed and anticipated to be available in 2014.
DDR SDRAM
Double data rate synchronous dynamic random-access memory (DDR SDRAM) is a class of memory integrated circuits used in computers. DDR SDRAM, also called DDR1 SDRAM, has been superseded by DDR2 SDRAM and DDR3 SDRAM, neither of which is either forward or backward compatible with DDR1 SDRAM -meaning that DDR2 or DDR3 memory modules will not work in DDR1-equipped motherboards, and vice versa.
Compared to single data rate (SDR) SDRAM, the DDR SDRAM interface makes higher transfer rates possible by more strict control of the timing of the electrical data and clock signals. Implementations often have to use schemes such as phase-locked loops and self-calibration to reach the required timing accuracy. The interface uses double pumping (transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to lower the clock frequency. One advantage of keeping the clock frequency down is that it reduces the signal integrity requirements on the circuit board connecting the memory to the controller. The name "double data rate" refers to the fact that a DDR SDRAM with a certain clock frequency achieves nearly twice the bandwidth of a SDR SDRAM running at the same clock frequency, due to this double pumping.
With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 64 (number of bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte). Thus, with a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s.
"Beginning in 1996 and concluding in June 2000, JEDEC developed the DDR (Double Data Rate) SDRAM specification (JESD79)."[3] JEDEC has set standards for data rates of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts. The first specification is for memory chips, and the second is for memory modules.
RDRAM
Direct Rambus DRAM or DRDRAM (sometimes just called Rambus DRAM or RDRAM) is a type of synchronous dynamic RAM. RDRAM was developed by Rambus inc., in the mid-1990s as a replacement for then-prevalent DIMM SDRAM memory architecture.
RDRAM was initially expected to become the standard in PC memory, especially after Intel agreed to license the Rambus technology for use with its future chipsets. Further, RDRAM was expected to become a standard for VRAM. However, RDRAM got embroiled in a standards war with an alternative technology - DDR SDRAM, quickly losing out on grounds of price, and, later on, performance. By the early 2000s, RDRAM was no longer supported by any mainstream computing architecture.
VRAM
Video RAM or VRAM, is a dual-ported variant of dynamic RAM (DRAM), which was once commonly used to store the framebuffer in some graphics adapters.
Samsung Electronics Corporation VRAM

It was invented by F. Dill, D. Ling and R. Matick at IBM Research in 1980, with a patent issued in 1985 (US Patent 4,541,075). The first commercial use of VRAM was in a high-resolution graphics adapter introduced in 1986 by IBM for the PC/RT system, which set a new standard for graphics displays. Prior to the development of VRAM, dual-ported memory was quite expensive, limiting higher resolution bitmapped graphics to high-end workstations. VRAM improved the overall framebuffer throughput, allowing low cost, high-resolution, high-speed, color graphics. Modern GUI-based operating systems benefitted from this and thus it provided a key ingredient for proliferation of graphic user interfaces throughout the world at that time.
VRAM
Has two sets of data output pins, and thus two ports that can be used simultaneously. The first port, the DRAM port, is accessed by the host computer in a manner very similar to traditional DRAM. The second port, the video port, is typically read-only and is dedicated to providing a high throughput, serialized data channel for the graphics chipset.
Typical DRAM arrays normally access a full row of bits (i.e. a word line) at up to 1,024 bits at one time, but only use one or a few of these for actual data, the remainder being discarded. Since DRAM cells are destructively read, each row accessed must be sensed, and re-written. Thus, 1,024 sense amplifiers are typically used. VRAM operates by not discarding the excess bits which must be accessed, but making full use of them in a simple way. If each horizontal scan line of a display is mapped to a full word, then upon reading one word and latching all 1,024 bits into a separate row buffer, these bits can subsequently be serially streamed to the display circuitry. This will leave access to the DRAM array free to be accessed (read or write) for many cycles, until the row buffer is almost depleted. A complete DRAM read cycle is only required to fill the row buffer, leaving most DRAM cycles available for normal accesses.
Such operation is described in the paper "All points addressable raster display memory" by R. Matick, D. Ling, S. Gupta, and F. Dill, IBM Journal of R&D, Vol 28, No. 4, July 1984, pp. 379–393. To use the video port, the controller first uses the DRAM port to select the row of the memory array that is to be displayed. The VRAM then copies that entire row to an internal row-buffer which is a shift register. The controller can then continue to use the DRAM port for drawing objects on the display. Meanwhile, the controller feeds a clock called the shift clock (SCLK) to the VRAM's video port. Each SCLK pulse causes the VRAM to deliver the next data bit, in strict address order, from the shift register to the video port. For simplicity, the graphics adapter is usually designed so that the contents of a row, and therefore the contents of the shift-register, corresponds to a complete horizontal line on the display.
Through the 1990s, many graphic subsystems used VRAM, with the number of megabits touted as a selling point. In the late 1990s, synchronous DRAM technologies gradually became affordable, dense, and fast enough to displace VRAM, even though it is only single-ported and more overhead is required. Nevertheless, many of the VRAM concepts of internal, on-chip buffering and organization have been used and improved in modern graphics adapters.

Glossary exercise

Input
Input is the term denoting either an entrance or changes which are inserted into a system and which activate or modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the modeling, system design and system exploitation. It is usually connected with other terms, e.g., input field, input variable, input parameter, input value, input signal, input port, input device and input file.
Output
Output is the term denoting either an exit or changes which exit a system and which activate/modify a process. It is an abstract concept, used in the modeling, system(s) design and system(s) exploitation.
Processing
Processing is an open source programming language and integrated development environment (IDE) built for the electronic arts, new media art, and visual design communities with the purpose of teaching the fundamentals of computer programming in a visual context, and to serve as the foundation for electronic sketchbooks. The project was initiated in 2001 by Casey Reas and Benjamin Fry, both formerly of the Aesthetics and Computation Group at the MIT Media Lab. One of the stated aims of Processing is to act as a tool to get non-programmers started with programming, through the instant gratification of visual feedback. The language builds on the Java language, but uses a simplified syntax and graphics programming model.
Central processing unit
A central processing unit (CPU), also referred to as a central processor unit,[1] is the hardware within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s.[2] The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains much the same.
A computer can have more than one CPU; this is called multiprocessing. All modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning contained on a single chip. Some integrated circuits (ICs) can contain multiple CPUs on a single chip; those ICs are called multi-core processors. An IC containing a CPU can also contain peripheral devices, and other components of a computer system; this is called a system on a chip (SoC).
Two typical components of a CPU are the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations, and the control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

Not all computational systems rely on a central processing unit. An array processor or vector processor has multiple parallel computing elements, with no one unit considered the "center". In the distributed computing model, problems are solved by a distributed interconnected set of processors.
Random access memory
Random-access memory (RAM /ræm/) is a form of computer data storage. A random-access device allows stored data to be accessed directly in any random order. In contrast, other data storage media such as hard disks, CDs, DVDs and magnetic tape, as well as early primary memory types such as drum memory, read and write data only in a predetermined order, consecutively, because of mechanical design limitations. Therefore, the time to access a given data location varies significantly depending on its physical location.
Today, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. Strictly speaking, modern types of DRAM are not random access, as data is read in bursts, although the name DRAM / RAM has stuck. However, many types of SRAM, ROM, OTP, and NOR flash are still random access even in a strict sense. RAM is normally associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where its stored information is lost if the power is removed. Many other types of non-volatile memory are RAM as well, including most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash. The first RAM modules to come into the market were created in 1951 and were sold until the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Storage media
Storage media are devices that store application and user information. The primary storage media for a computer is usually the internal hard drive. Most internal drives are regular IDE hard drives that come with the computer. A removable drive is another popular storage device that is usually connected by firewire, USB, or parallel port (e.g. portable Zip drives, Jaz drives, or CD/DVD drives). Newer forms of external storage include USB thumb drives and camera storage media.
Cache
In computer science, a cache (/ˈkæʃ/ KASH)[1] is a component that transparently stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster. The data that is stored within a cache might be values that have been computed earlier or duplicates of original values that are stored elsewhere. If requested data is contained in the cache (cache hit), this request can be served by simply reading the cache, which is comparatively faster. Otherwise (cache miss), the data has to be recomputed or fetched from its original storage location, which is comparatively slower. Hence, the greater the number of requests that can be served from the cache, the faster the overall system performance becomes.
To be cost efficient and to enable an efficient use of data, caches are relatively small. Nevertheless, caches have proven themselves in many areas of computing because access patterns in typical computer applications have locality of reference. References exhibit temporal locality if data is requested again that has been recently requested already. References exhibit spatial locality if data is requested that is physically stored close to data that has been requested already.
Single core processor
A chip with one CPU (one processing unit). Microprocessors have been single core since their inception in the early 1970s. After the turn of the century, chips with two or more CPUs emerged.
Dual core processor
A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more independent actual central processing units (called "cores"), which are the units that read and execute program instructions. The instructions are ordinary CPU instructions such as add, move data, and branch, but the multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, increasing overall speed for programs amenable to parallel computing. Manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die (known as a chip multiprocessor or CMP), or onto multiple dies in a single chip package.
Processors were originally developed with only one core. A dual-core processor has two cores (e.g. AMD Phenom II X2, Intel Core Duo), a quad-core processor contains four cores (e.g. AMD Phenom II X4, Intel's quad-core processors, see i5, and i7 at Intel Core), a 6-core processor contains six cores (e.g. AMD Phenom II X6, Intel Core i7 Extreme Edition 980X), an 8-core processor contains eight cores (e.g. Intel Xeon E7-2820, AMD FX-8350), a 10-core processor contains ten cores (e.g. Intel Xeon E7-2850), a 12-core processor contains twelve cores. A multi-core processor implements multiprocessing in a single physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely. For example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared memory inter-core communication methods. Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, two-dimensional mesh, and crossbar. Homogeneous multi-core systems include only identical cores, heterogeneous multi-core systems have cores that are not identical. Just as with single-processor systems, cores in multi-core systems may implement architectures such as superscalar, VLIW, vector processing, SIMD, or multithreading.
Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains including general-purpose, embedded, network, digital signal processing (DSP), and graphics.
The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the software algorithms used and their implementation. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can be run in parallel simultaneously on multiple cores; this effect is described by Amdahl's law. In the best case, so-called embarrassingly parallel problems may realize speedup factors near the number of cores, or even more if the problem is split up enough to fit within each core's cache(s), avoiding use of much slower main system memory. Most applications, however, are not accelerated so much unless programmers invest a prohibitive amount of effort in re-factoring the whole problem. The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research.
DVD
DVD (sometimes explained as "digital video disc" or "digital versatile disc") is a digital optical disc storage format, invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions.
Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD. Such discs are known as DVD-ROM, because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs (DVD-R and DVD+R) can be recorded once using a DVD recorder and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable DVDs (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM) can be recorded and erased multiple times.
DVDs are used in DVD-Video consumer digital video format and in DVD-Audio consumer digital audio format, as well as for authoring DVD discs written in a special AVCHD format to hold high definition material (often in conjunction with AVCHD format camcorders). DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs.
UMD
The Universal Media Disc (UMD) is an optical disc medium developed by Sony for use on their PlayStation Portable handheld gaming and multimedia platform. It can hold up to 1.8 gigabytes of data and is capable of housing video games, feature-length films, and music. UMD is the trademark of Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. for their optical disk cartridge (ODC).
Address bus
An address bus is a computer bus (a series of lines connecting two or more devices) that is used to specify a physical address. When a processor or DMA-enabled device needs to read or write to a memory location, it specifies that memory location on the address bus (the value to be read or written is sent on the data bus). The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address. For example, a system with a 32-bit address bus can address 232 (4,294,967,296) memory locations. If each memory address holds one byte, the addressable memory space is 4 GB.
Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one coulomb per volt.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.
Optical dick
In computing and optical disc recording technologies, an optical disc (OD) is a flat, usually circular disc which encodes binary data (bits) in the form of pits (binary value of 0 or off, due to lack of reflection when read) and lands (binary value of 1 or on, due to a reflection when read) on a special material (often aluminium) on one of its flat surfaces. The encoding material sits atop a thicker substrate (usually polycarbonate) which makes up the bulk of the disc and forms a dust defocusing layer. The encoding pattern follows a continuous, spiral path covering the entire disc surface and extending from the innermost track to the outermost track. The data is stored on the disc with a laser or stamping machine, and can be accessed when the data path is illuminated with a laser diode in an optical disc drive which spins the disc at speeds of about 200 to 4,000 RPM or more, depending on the drive type, disc format, and the distance of the read head from the center of the disc (inner tracks are read at a higher disc speed). The pits or bumps distort the reflected laser light, hence most optical discs (except the black discs of the original PlayStation video game console) characteristically have an iridescent appearance created by the grooves of the reflective layer. The reverse side of an optical disc usually has a printed label, sometimes made of paper but often printed or stamped onto the disc itself. This side of the disc contains the actual data and is typically coated with a transparent material, usually lacquer. Unlike the 3½-inch floppy disk, most optical discs do not have an integrated protective casing and are therefore susceptible to data transfer problems due to scratches, fingerprints, and other environmental problems.
Optical discs are usually between 7.6 and 30 cm (3 to 12 in) in diameter, with 12 cm (4.75 in) being the most common size. A typical disc is about 1.2 mm (0.05 in) thick, while the track pitch (distance from the center of one track to the center of the next) is typically 1.6 µm.
An optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types: read-only (e.g.: CD and CD-ROM), recordable (write-once, e.g. CD-R), or re-recordable (rewritable, e.g. CD-RW). Write-once optical discs commonly have an organic dye recording layer between the substrate and the reflective layer. Rewritable discs typically contain an alloy recording layer composed of a phase change material, most often AgInSbTe, an alloy of silver, indium, antimony, and tellurium.
Optical discs are most commonly used for storing music (e.g. for use in a CD player), video (e.g. for use in a Blu-ray player), or data and programs for personal computers (PC). The Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) promotes standardized optical storage formats. Although optical discs are more durable than earlier audio-visual and data storage formats, they are susceptible to environmental and daily-use damage. Libraries and archives enact optical media preservation procedures to ensure continued usability in the computer's optical disc drive or corresponding disc player.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is a tape drive (tape unit, streamer).
Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording. When all radio was live, it allowed programming to be recorded. At a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It is a key technology in early computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods, and to be rapidly accessed.
Nowadays other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape. In many cases these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues and tape is still used.
Over years, magnetic tape can suffer from deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome. Caused by absorption of moisture into the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable.
Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics, and the inventors were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement.
Binary
Binary means composed of two pieces or two parts
MHz
Abbreviation for megahertz. One MHz represents one million cycles per second. The speed of microprocessors, called the clock speed, is measured in megahertz. For example, a microprocessor that runs at 200 MHz executes 200 million cycles per second. Each computer instruction requires a fixed number of cycles, so the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the microprocessor can execute. To a large degree, this controls how powerful the microprocessor is. Another chief factor in determining a microprocessor's power is its data width (that is, how many bits it can manipulate at one time).

In addition to microprocessors, the speeds of buses and interfaces are also measured in MHz.
GHz
Abbreviation for gigahertz. One GHz represents 1 billion cycles per second. The speed of microprocessors, called the clock speed, often is measured in gigahertz. For example, a microprocessor that runs at 200 GHz executes 200 billion cycles per second. Each computer instruction requires a fixed number of cycles, so the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the microprocessor can execute. To a large degree, this controls how powerful the microprocessor is.
Hard drive
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information using rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material. An HDD retains its data even when powered off. Data is read in a random-access manner, meaning individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order rather than sequentially. An HDD consists of one or more rigid ("hard") rapidly rotating disks (platters) with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm to read and write data to the surfaces.
Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for general purpose computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have maintained this position into the modern era of servers and personal computers. More than 200 companies have produced HDD units, though most current units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital. Worldwide revenues for HDD shipments are expected to reach $33 billion in 2013, a decrease of approximately 12% from $37.8 billion in 2012.
The primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000: a 1-terabyte (TB) drive has a capacity of 1,000 gigabytes (GB; where 1 gigabyte = 1 billion bytes). Typically, some of an HDD's capacity is unavailable to the user because it is used by the file system and the computer operating system, and possibly inbuilt redundancy for error correction and recovery. Performance is specified by the time to move the heads to a file (Average Access Time) plus the time it takes for the file to move under its head (average latency, a function of the physical rotational speed in revolutions per minute) and the speed at which the file is transmitted (data rate).
The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch in desktop computers and 2.5-inch in laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as SATA (Serial ATA), USB or SAS (Serial attached SCSI) cables.
As of 2012, the primary competing technology for secondary storage is flash memory in the form of solid-state drives (SSDs). HDDs are expected to remain the dominant medium for secondary storage due to predicted continuing advantages in recording capacity and price per unit of storage; but SSDs are replacing HDDs where speed, power consumption and durability are more important considerations than price and capacity.
Quad core processor
A quad-core processor is a chip with four independent units called cores that read and execute central processing unit (CPU) instructions such as add, move data, and branch.
Within the chip, each core operates in conjunction with other circuits such as cache, memory management, and input/output (I/O) ports. The individual cores in a quad-core processor can run multiple instructions at the same time, increasing the overall speed for programs compatible with parallel processing. Manufacturers typically integrate the cores onto a single semiconductor wafer, or onto multiple semiconductor wafers within a single IC (integrated circuit) package.
Data bus
In computer architecture, a bus (from the Latin omnibus, meaning 'for all') is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and software, including communication protocol.
Early computer buses were parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit serial connections, and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB.

Tuesday 4 March 2014

Glossary of terms

Glossary of terms

RAM 
RAM (pronounced ramm) is an acronym for random accessmemory, a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is the most common type of memory found in computers and other devices, such as printers.



CPU 
A central processing unit is the component within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. The term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960's. 



GPU
A graphics processing unit (GPU), is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images. GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles. Modern GPUs are very efficient at manipulating computer graphics, and their highly parallel structure makes them more effective than general-purpose CPUs for processing.


Video Displays/output
Television, or TV for short, is a telecommunication medium for transmitting and receiving moving images that can be monochrome (black-and-white) or colored, with or without accompanying sound. "Television" may also refer specifically to a television set, television program, or television transmission.
A monitor or a display is an electronic visual display for computers. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry and an enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as deep as the screen size.



Sound/Audio
A sound card is an expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.



Computer speakers, are speakers external to a computer, that disable the lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a low-power internal amplifier. The standard audio connection is a 3.5 mm (approximately 1/8 inch) stereo phone connector often color-coded lime green (following the PC 99 standard) for computer sound cards.


Storage Media
An internal hard drive is a hard drive that resides inside the computer. Most computers come with a single internal hard drive, which includes the operating system and pre-installed applications. While laptop computers only have room for one internal hard drive.


A hard drive that is outside of the computer case in its own enclosure. Most external hard drives support the IDE interface and are slightly bigger than a hard drive itself.





Power Supply
The component that supplies power to a computer. Most personal computers can be plugged into standard electrical outlets. The power supply then pulls the required amount of electricity and converts the AC current to DC current. It also regulates the voltage to eliminate spikes and surges. Not all power supplies do an adequate voltage-regulation job.




Software Kernel
In computing, the kernel is a computer program that manages input/output requests from software and translates them into data processing instructions for the central processing unit and other electronic components of a computer. The kernel is a fundamental part of a modern computer's operating system.

HCI
Short for human-computer Interaction, a discipline concerned with the study, design, construction and implementation of human-centric interactive computer systems. A user interface, such as a GUI, is how a human interacts with a computer.



LAN
A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings, however, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves.


GPRS
Short for General Packet Radio Service, a standard for wireless communications which runs at speeds up to 115 kilobits per second, compared with current GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) systems' 9.6 kilobits.

GPRS, which supports a wide range of bandwidths, is an efficient use of limited bandwidth and is particularly suited for sending and receiving small bursts of data, such as e-mail and Web browsing, as well as large volumes of data.



WAP
Short for the Wireless Application Protocol, a secure specification that allows users to access information instantly via handheld wireless devices such as mobile phones, pagers, two-way radios, smartphones and communicators.



Cache
Cache is a specialized form of computer memory. In the case of Internet, cache is commonly used in the context of "browser cache". Cache is designed to speed up the computer by prioritizing its contents for quick access.

cache holds copies of recently accessed data such as a web page and pictures on web pages. It keeps this data ready to "swap" onto your screen within fractions of a second. So, instead of requiring your computer to go to the original web page and photos in Denmark, the cache simply offers you the lastest copy from your own hard drive.


MCP
MCP's (media and communications processors) are designed for professional users who demand stable, reliable, high-performance computing. The NVIDIA nForce Professional line offers a scalable architecture for AMD Optero multiprocessor servers and workstations, including a proven fifth-generation HyperTransport design.




2D VS 3D Graphics Processing

There are generally two types of images a GPU has to calculate, which is also called rendering. Most applications like the operating system’s desktop (except e.g. Windows Vista’s Aero Desktop) or office applications the GPU has to render two dimensional (2D) pictures. Modern GPU's are so powerful that there is no difference in 2D performance between low-cost and expensive GPU's. The minor part of today’s applications use 3D pictures to simulate three-dimensionality. Examples for such applications are computer and video games or applications for design and technical construction (CAD).


Subscription TV
Pay television or premium channels refer to subscription-based television services, usually provided by both analog and digital cable and satellite television, but also increasingly via digital terrestrial and internet television.


ETV
Enhanced-definition television, or extended-definition television (EDTV) is an American Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) marketing shorthand term for certain digital television (DTV) formats and devices. This term defines formats that deliver a picture superior to that of standard-definition television (SDTV) but not as detailed as high-definition television (HDTV).
The term refers to devices capable of displaying 480-line or 576-line signals in progressive scan, commonly referred to as 480p (NTSC-HQ) and 576p (PAL) respectively, as opposed to interlaced scanning, commonly referred to as 480i (NTSC) or 576i (PAL). High-motion is optional for EDTV.

API
An application programming interface (API) specifies how some software components interact with each other.
AS well as accessing databases or computer hardware, such as hard disk drives or video cards, an API can be used to ease the work of programming graphical user interface components.

Compiled Programming language for games
C++ is a general purpose programming language that is free-form and compiled. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises both high-level and low-level language features. It provides imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features.

Interpreted programming language for games
Java is a programming language expressly designed for use in the distributed environment of the Internet. It was designed to have the look and feel of the C++ language.

Object orientated programming
A type of programming in which programmers define the data type of a data structure, and also functions that can be applied to the data structure. In this way, the data structure becomes an object that includes both data and functions.

Scripting language for games
In video game development, Lua is widely used as a scripting language by game programmers, perhaps owing its perceived easiness to embed, fast execution, and short learning curve.
GameDev.net made a poll in 2003 that showed Lua as a most popular scripting language for game programming.Lua is commonly described as a “multi-paradigm” language.